Introduction
Prolog is a logical and a declarative programming language. The name
itself, Prolog, is short for PROgramming in LOGic. Prolog's heritage includes
the research on theorem provers and other automated deduction systems developed
in the 1960s and 1970s. The inference mechanism of Prolog is based upon
Robinson's resolution principle (1965) together with mechanisms for extracting
answers proposed by Green (1968). These ideas came together forcefully
with the advent of linear resolution procedures. Explicit goal-directed
linear resolution procedures, such as those of Kowalski and Kuehner (1971)
and Kowalski (1974), gave impetus to the development of a general purpose
logic programming system. The "first" Prolog was "Marseille Prolog" based
on work by Colmerauer (1970). The first detailed description of the Prolog
language was the manual for the Marseille Prolog interpreter (Roussel,
1975). The other major influence on the nature of this first Prolog was
that it was designed to facilitate natural language processing.
Prolog is the major example of a fourth generation programming language
supporting the declarative programming paradigm. The Japanese Fifth-Generation
Computer Project, announced in 1981, adopted Prolog as a development language,
and thereby focused considerable attention on the language and its capabilities.
The programs in this tutorial are written in "standard" (University of)
Edinburgh Prolog, as specified in the classic Prolog textbook by authors
Clocksin and Mellish (1981,1992). The other major kind of Prolog is the
PrologII family of Prologs which are the descendants of Marseille Prolog.
The reference to Giannesini, et.al. (1986) uses a version of PrologII.
There are differences between these two varieties of Prolog; part of the
difference is syntax, and part is semantics. However, students who learn
either kind of Prolog can easily adapt to the other kind.
This tutorial is intended to be used to help learn the essential, basic
concepts of Prolog. The sample programs have been especially chosen to
help promote the use of Prolog programming in an artificial intelligence
course. Lisp and Prolog are the most frequently used symbolic programming
languages for artificial intelligence. They are widely regarded as excellent
languages for "exploratory" and "prototype programming".
Chapter 1 explains the Prolog programming environment for the beginner.
Chapter 2 explains Prolog syntax and many essentials of Prolog programming
through the use of carefully chosen sample programs. The sample programs
are arranged to guide the student through the development of Prolog programs
that are constructed in a top-down, declarative fashion. Care has been
taken to cover Prolog programming techniques that are very useful in an
artificial intelligence course. In fact, this primer can serve as a convenient,
small, concise Prolog introduction for such a course. Semantic issues have
been addressed by introducing early the concept of a program clause tree
that is used to define in an abstract way what are supposed to be the consequences
of a Prolog program specification. The author believes this to be a viable
way to promote the basic semantic issues of software verification for Prolog
programming. The last section of this chapter introduces an example that
shows that Prolog can be effectively used to give careful, precise specifications
of systems, contrary to its usual reputation as being hard to document
because it is easy to use as an exploratory programming tool.
Chapter 3 explains the operation of the underlying inference engine
of Prolog. Chapter 3 should be first read after the student has studied
two or three of the sample programs in Chapter 2. The last section in this
chapter introduces Prolog meta-interpreters.
Chapter 4 gives an outlined view of the major built-in predicates of
Prolog, many of which are exemplified in Chapter 2.
Chapter 5 gives an outline for developing A* search programs in prolog.
Section 5.3 has an αβ search program for the game of tic tac toe.
Chapter 6 presents a unique and extensive presentation of a logic meta-interpreter
for normal logical rulebases. {Note 9/4/2006: I have edited this chapter heavily,
and the section links are all new.}
Chapter 7 gives an introduction to Prolog's built-in grammar parser
generator, and a brief overview of how Prolog can be used to parse English
(natural language) sentences. Also, there is a section covering the construction
of simple idiomatic natural language interfaces to programs.
Chapter 8 shows how to implement varios prolog prototypes. A new section (§8.4)
develops an interactive connection between prolog (inference engine) and Java (GUI) to
play tic tac toe.
The simple connection model is quite widely adaptable and applicable.
Earlier versions of portions of this tutorial date back to 1988. The
introductory material was originally used to help explain a
Prolog interpreter developed by the author (no longer available) for use in his courses.
The author believes that the
introductory material, gathered together in the form given here might be
very useful for the student who wants a quick, but well-tailored, introduction
to Prolog.
For fuller treatments of Prolog the student is advised to see the textbooks
by Clocksin and Mellish (1981,1992), by O'Keefe (1990), by Clocksin (1997, 2003),
or by Sterling and Shapiro (1986).
For excellent historical notes regarding Prolog and natural language
processing using Prolog the text by Pereira and Shieber (1987) is recommended.
Pomona, California
1988-2011
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